A single continuous state, by its own reckoning, for roughly twenty-three centuries: from real Iron Age hut villages on the Palatine Hill around 1000 BCE, through the legendary 753 BCE founding, five centuries as the Republic of SPQR, the transition to one-man rule under Augustus in 27 BCE, a near-collapse and reinvention in the third century, a new capital at Constantinople, a permanent East/West split in 395 CE, the West's fall in 476 CE — and a continuing Eastern half, what historians call the Byzantine Empire, that outlived the West by nearly a thousand years before Ottoman conquest finally ended it in 1453.
Rome predates the vector flag by well over a millennium; its identifying symbol was the vexillum, a square banner hung from a horizontal crossbar, and above all the eagle (aquila) standard carried by each legion. This page traces that standard's evolution honestly — reconstructed where pre-heraldic, moving toward the double-headed Byzantine eagle that later became one of history's most copied imperial emblems.
Scope of this page: Rome and its direct continuation, the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire, c. 1000 BCE – 1453 CE, told as one throughline rather than two separate stories, since Byzantine emperors and subjects called themselves Romans (Rhωmaîoi) until the very end. The earliest entry covers the real archaeological settlement that predates Rome's legendary 753 BCE founding date. This page does not attempt to cover every modern country that once sat inside Roman borders — Italy, Greece, and Turkey are its clearest geographic heirs, each covered in this atlas's own regional hubs. Part of a larger atlas — see the map and linked pages at the bottom.
Extent, not borders: a simplified snapshot map
Rome left no surveyed borders for a vector map to trace, and no single modern country is "the" Roman Empire — so this map is a deliberately simplified extent-snapshot, built from the real modern coastlines of the lands Rome held (Iberia, Gaul, Italy, the Maghreb in the west; Greece, Anatolia, and Egypt in the east), not a claim about ancient administrative lines. Press play, or drag the slider, to watch the one real, well-documented internal division this empire ever had: the permanent 395 CE split between West and East.
The West/East line below is the single genuine partition in this history. Diocletian's Tetrarchy (284 CE) shared power among four rulers but never fixed a permanent territorial line; the empire kept reunifying under one emperor, most recently Constantine. Theodosius I's death in 395 CE is different — historians agree that division never reversed. The line dissolves again only when both halves are gone: the West to Germanic successor kingdoms by 476, the East to the Ottomans in 1453.
753 BCE
Roman Kingdom
Simplified extent-snapshot built from real modern coastlines, not a surveyed ancient border — see the note above.
How we know this. 8 of 8 eras on this page carry an evidence panel (4 attested, 2 placeholder image, 2 not yet checked). Only the ones marked attested are confirmed by the sources named under them; where sources disagree or a claim could not be confirmed, the panel says so.
Constantinople falls — see ottoman-empire-flags.html
1453 CE
Fall of Constantinople
ConqueredConstantine XI PalaiologosEastern Orthodox Christianity
Who & why: Sultan Mehmed II's Ottoman forces breach Constantinople's ancient land walls on 29 May 1453 after a seven-week siege, using massive siege cannon against defenses that had held for over a thousand years; Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos dies fighting in the breach. This ends the Roman state for good, nearly 2,206 years after its traditional founding, and Constantinople becomes the Ottoman capital.
What it represents: the closing point of this page's arc. The Ottoman Empire that succeeds Byzantium in this same capital city is covered on its own page in this atlas. The sources read do not describe any flag for the fall of Constantinople; Wikipedia's Byzantine flags page mentions 1453 only in navigation text.
Attestedhow we know this
Wikipedia: Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453 after a 53-day siege under Sultan Mehmed II, ending the Byzantine Empire. Flags of the World's Byzantine page: Michael VIII Palaiologos retook Constantinople in 1261 and his descendants held the throne until the city and the Empire fell to the Ottomans in 1453.
Migration & conquest:Occupied by: Latin Crusader Empire (1204–61)
Ruling house:Justinian DynastyPalaiologos Dynasty
Who & why: Constantine the Great founds Constantinople on the site of Byzantium in 330 CE as a new eastern capital; after the West's fall in 476, the Eastern Empire endures, calling itself simply "Roman" throughout. Justinian I (527–565) briefly reconquers Italy, North Africa, and part of Spain and codifies Roman law; the empire survives crusader occupation (1204–1261), slow territorial loss, and repeated sieges before finally falling in 1453 — nearly a thousand years after the West.
What it represents: the double-headed eagle becomes the emblem of the Palaiologos dynasty (1261-1453) in its later, most iconic imperial form, shown here as an informed reconstruction. Flags of the World calls the Byzantine imperial flag yellow with a black crowned double-headed eagle and says an earlier emperor Komnenos first used it; Wikipedia's page on Byzantine flags says the double-headed eagle is not securely attested with the emperor before the 1301 chrysobull of Andronikos II (one scholar argues c. 1288), that Pseudo-Kodinos in the mid-14th century calls the tetragrammatic cross 'the customary imperial banner', and that the bandon was the main battle standard from the 6th century. Neither source says the eagle evolved from the Roman aquila.
Attestedhow we know this
Flags of the World: 'The Byzantine Imperial flag is yellow with a black crowned double-headed eagle', 'the symbol of the Palaiologos' (1258-1453), first made by an emperor Komnenos, crowns added by the Palaiologoi (one for Nikaia, one for Constantinople after 1261), with the yellow-black the peacetime flag; the 14th-century Book of All Kingdoms shows Byzantine flags. Wikipedia: the double-headed eagle is not securely attested with the emperor before the 1301 chrysobull of Andronikos II (Soloviev c. 1288) and was used by the Palaiologan emperors for senior imperial family members; Pseudo-Kodinos (mid-14th c.) calls the tetragrammatic cross the customary imperial banner.
Roman Empire — Flags of the World (CRW Flags) compiled
Not established: The two publishers agree on a Palaiologan double-headed eagle but differ on whether it was the flag (FOTW) or an emblem beside the cross banner (Wikipedia), and on its origin (Komnenos vs not before 1301). Neither covers 330-1261 or says the eagle descends from the aquila; the card is a later-form reconstruction.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — no fixed civil flag; imperial banners varied by dynasty and use.
LayoutDeep purple-red field (imperial porphyry color), gold double-headed eagle.
Imperial red#7C2E1F
Gold#E8C766
the 395 CE permanent split, West and East, reconstructed
Who & why: Emperor Theodosius I dies in 395 CE and divides the empire between his two sons for good — earlier splits under Diocletian's Tetrarchy had been administrative, but this one never reunifies. The Western Roman Empire, weakened by repeated barbarian incursions, sees Rome itself sacked twice (410 by the Visigoths, 455 by the Vandals) before the Germanic general Odoacer deposes the last western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 CE — the conventional end date for "the fall of Rome."
What it represents: both halves continue to use Roman legionary and imperial symbolism, but they now answer to separate courts and separate fates — the West dissolving into Germanic successor kingdoms, the East persisting as what later historians call Byzantium. The sources read do not cover the 395 split, the Western empire's fall in 476, or any flags of either half.
Not yet checked against sourceshow we know this
Wikipedia (Western Roman Empire): after Theodosius I died on 17 January 395 the empire was divided between his sons Honorius (West) and Arcadius (East), and Romulus Augustulus was deposed by Odoacer on 4 September 476. Wikipedia's Byzantine flags page says the vexillum and draco are still occasionally attested in the 5th century and beyond. The World History Encyclopedia page on the Western empire was read but does not mention a 395 partition or any flags.
Not established: The 395 and 476 dates rest on Wikipedia alone (World History Encyclopedia dates the end to 476 but not the 395 split); no source describes the standards of either half, so the claim that both continued Roman legionary symbolism is only the general Wikipedia statement.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — reconstructed split marker.
LayoutSplit field, red (West) and blue (East), gold borders.
West, red#7C2E1F
East, blue#1A3A6B
the Chi-Rho labarum standard, reconstructed — Constantine's Christianized Rome
Migration & conquest:Immigration: Gothic refugees cross the Danube fleeing the Huns (376)
Ruling house:Constantinian Dynasty
Who & why: after the near-collapse of the Crisis of the Third Century (military anarchy, civil wars, economic breakdown), Diocletian restores order from 284 CE and splits administration into a four-ruler Tetrarchy to manage the empire's unwieldy size. Constantine the Great reunifies sole rule by 324, founds Constantinople as a new capital in 330, and, after his own conversion, sets Christianity on the path to becoming the empire's dominant faith — formalized as the state religion under Theodosius I in 380.
What it represents: the labarum, a military standard bearing the Chi-Rho Christogram, is adopted by Constantine after his reported vision before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE) — the first explicitly Christian imperial symbol, replacing the old pagan legionary standards. Shown here as a reconstruction. Wikipedia says there is little evidence for the labarum before c. 317, and that Lactantius (a dream, Chi sign on shields) and Eusebius (a cross of light, described later) tell the 312 story differently; it does not state that the labarum replaced the old standards. Flags of the World says the labarum bore the Greek X and P but gives no date.
Attestedhow we know this
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (J. Yates, 1875): after Constantine embraced Christianity 'a figure or emblem of Christ, woven in gold upon purple cloth' was substituted for the emperor's head on the standard, which 'was called labarum' (Prudentius, Nicephorus). Flags of the World: the emblem Constantine bore was the only recognised Christian emblem of his time, the Greek X and P, and the labarum was made of silk. Wikipedia (Labarum): Constantine's vision before the Milvian Bridge is dated 27 October 312 with differing accounts; little evidence for the labarum before c. 317; Wikipedia (Vexillum): Constantine replaced the spear point with the Chi-Rho.
Not established: Smith does not name the Chi-Rho; no source says the labarum replaced the older pagan legionary standards; the Tetrarchy (284-312) is not covered; the 312 vision is told differently by Lactantius and Eusebius. The card is a reconstruction.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — military standard, no civil flag.
LayoutImperial red field, gold Chi-Rho standard on a vertical staff.
Imperial red#7C2E1F
Gold#E8C766
the aquila eagle standard bearing SPQR, reconstructed — Empire from Augustus
Migration & conquest:Emigration: Jews fleeing Judea into Parthia (70/135 CE)
Ruling house:Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Who & why: Octavian, having defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 BCE), is granted the title Augustus by the Senate in 27 BCE, formally ending the Republic while preserving its institutions as a facade — the beginning of one-man imperial rule. Rome reaches its greatest territorial extent under Trajan (117 CE), spanning from Britain to Mesopotamia, before the mid-3rd-century Crisis brings the empire to the edge of collapse.
What it represents: the aquila (eagle) standard, carried by each legion, remains Rome's defining military and imperial emblem through the transition from Republic to Empire. Smith's Dictionary (1875) says Marius in 104 BC kept the eagle alone of the earlier animal standards, while Wikipedia says that attribution (from Pliny) is disputed and that late Republican and early Imperial legions also used bulls and wolves; none of the sources read puts the Republican motto SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus) on the aquila, so the lettering shown is illustrative.
Attestedhow we know this
Smith's Dictionary (J. Yates, 1875): 'In the second consulship of Marius, B.C. 104, the four quadrupeds were entirely laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone retained'; the eagle was of silver or bronze with expanded wings, and under later emperors it was carried with the legion. Wikipedia (Aquila): each legion carried one aquila; the Marius origin after 104 BC is Pliny's claim and disputed; bulls and wolves were also used by late Republican and early Imperial legions. Flags of the World mentions an aquila only as a modern re-enactment piece.
Not established: SPQR on the aquila is stated by none of the sources (Smith does not mention SPQR; Wikipedia's Vexillum doubts SPQR on army standards), so the card's caption detail is unsupported; no Imperial-era aquila survives.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — military standard (vexillum/aquila), no civil flag existed.
LayoutImperial red field, gold eagle standard, SPQR lettering.
Imperial red#7C2E1F
Gold#E8C766
the vexillum banner of the Republic's legions (an SPQR inscription is not established by the sources read)
509 – 27 BCE
Roman Republic
RepublicLucius Junius BrutusRoman polytheism
Migration & conquest:Immigration: mass enslavement of conquered peoples (Punic & Greek wars)
Who & why: tradition holds that the last king, Tarquin the Proud, is overthrown in 509 BCE, replaced by a republic governed by elected magistrates and the Senate. Rome expands from a single city-state to control the entire Italian peninsula, then the wider Mediterranean through the Punic Wars against Carthage (264–146 BCE) and conquests in Gaul, Greece, and the East — while internal political strain, culminating in Julius Caesar's dictatorship and assassination (44 BCE) and the civil wars that follow, brings the Republic itself to an end.
What it represents: SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus) is the Republic's defining formula, stamped on standards, monuments, and later even manhole covers — a claim that sovereignty rests jointly with the Senate and the Roman people, carried by the vexillum banners of the legions. Wikipedia says it is 'sometimes reported' that Republic-era vexilla were red with SPQR in yellow but marks this unsourced and quotes a source that finds no evidence of SPQR on army flags; Flags of the World says SPQR, though common in inscriptions, does not appear to have been used on flags in antiquity.
Not yet checked against sourceshow we know this
Smith's Dictionary (Yates, 1875): the standards of the manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort were called vexilla, borne by vexillarii; it describes a scarlet flag only in a Greek battle-signal context and does not tie the vexillum to the Republic or mention SPQR. Wikipedia (Vexillum): a red vexillum with yellow SPQR is 'sometimes reported' but unsourced and no evidence of SPQR on army flags is found; the only surviving vexillum is of the 3rd century AD. Flags of the World: the vexillum was a cloth on a crossbar, SPQR was never used on flags in antiquity, and Suetonius records a blue vexillum awarded to Marcus Agrippa after a naval victory.
Not established: The vexillum as a Roman cloth standard is supported by all three, but nothing read dates a particular design (red, SPQR) to 509-27 BC; the Agrippa blue vexillum (a decoration, undated in the text read) is the only late-Republic vexillum named.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — vexillum (square banner on a crossbar), no fixed civil ratio.
LayoutRed field, gold SPQR panel.
Red#A4302A
Gold#E8C766
placeholder — the legendary Kingdom of Rome, no banner survives
Who & why: Roman tradition dates the city's founding to 753 BCE, by Romulus (who becomes its first king after killing his twin brother Remus in the founding myth). Seven kings rule in the traditional account, ending with the tyrannical Tarquin the Proud, whose overthrow in 509 BCE establishes the Republic. Much of this era is legendary rather than securely documented history, though archaeology confirms a genuine early settlement on the site.
What it represents: no flag or fixed banner is attested from this earliest, semi-legendary period — shown here honestly blank rather than inventing one, consistent with this atlas's treatment of other pre-heraldic eras.
Placeholder imagehow we know this
This page's own caption calls the image a placeholder: «placeholder — the legendary Kingdom of Rome, no banner survives».
Not established: Whether a flag, banner or standard existed in this period was not checked. The colour shown is not evidence of one.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — no attested flag; largely legendary era.
placeholder — scattered Iron Age hut villages, no polity or banner yet
c. 1000 – 753 BCE
Iron Age Latium (pre-urban settlement)
Fragmented / pre-urban Latin villagesNo single ruler documentedLatial polytheism (pre-urban)
Migration & conquest:Settlement: Italic (Latin) peoples across central Italy
Who & why: archaeology confirms genuine Iron Age hut settlements — postholes, hearths, and cremation burials of the Latial culture — on the Palatine Hill and its neighbors from around 1000 BCE, several generations before Rome's traditional 753 BCE founding date. These separate hilltop villages, inhabited by Latin-speaking Italic peoples, gradually coalesce into a single larger settlement over the 8th century BCE, a real process that the later legend of Romulus and Remus compresses into a single founding moment.
What it represents: no flag, banner, or even securely attested individual ruler survives from this pre-urban, pre-literate period — shown here honestly blank, consistent with this atlas's treatment of other pre-heraldic eras.
World context: this span overlaps the aftermath of the Late Bronze Age Collapse (c. 1200 BCE) that toppled the Mycenaean palaces and the Hittite Empire, the Phoenician colonization of the Mediterranean that traditionally founds Carthage in 814 BCE, and the Greek world's own emergence from its "Dark Age" into the age of Homer and the first recorded Olympic Games in 776 BCE — a wider Mediterranean Iron Age awakening of which the future Rome's hut villages were, at this stage, a minor and undistinguished part.
Placeholder imagehow we know this
This page's own caption calls the image a placeholder: «placeholder — scattered Iron Age hut villages, no polity or banner yet».
Not established: Whether a flag, banner or standard existed in this period was not checked. The colour shown is not evidence of one.
Paint guide
ProportionsN/A — no attested flag; pre-literate, pre-urban archaeological era.
Split empire — separate Western and Eastern courts
Leader — the named ruler most associated with the era's start
State religion — the official/established faith, not the population's
More of the atlas
This page is one lineage in a larger set. Rome has no single modern-country successor — Italy, Greece, and Turkey are its clearest geographic heirs, each with their own history in this atlas. See the region-wide empires hub and the other pages here: